ANGELICA MARIE P. MAGANTE
II- FLUORINE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Acromegaly –hormonal disorder that results from too much growth hormone (GH) in the body. The pituitary, a small gland in the brain, makes GH. In acromegaly, the pituitary produces excessive amounts of GH. Usually the excess GH comes from benign, or noncancerous, tumors on the pituitary. These benign tumors are called adenomas.
Addison Disease –endocrine or hormonal disorder that occurs in all age groups and afflicts men and women equally. The disease is characterized by weight loss, muscle weakness, fatigue, low blood pressure, and sometimes darkening of the skin in both exposed and nonexposed parts of the body.
Adrenal Hyperplasia, Congenital – refers to any of several autosomal recessive diseases resulting from mutations of genes for enzymes mediating the biochemical steps of production of cortisol from cholesterol by the adrenal glands (steroidogenesis). Most of these conditions involve excessive or deficient production of sex steroids and can alter development of primary or secondary sex characteristics in some affected infants, children, or adults. Only a small minority of people with CAH can be said to have an intersex condition, but this attracted American public attention in the late 1990s and many accounts of varying accuracy have appeared in the popular media. Approximately 95% of cases of CAH are due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency.
Adrenoleukodystrophy – rare, (1 in 20,000 boys) inherited disorder that leads to progressive brain damage, failure of the adrenal glands and eventually death. ALD is one disease in a group of inherited disorders called leukodystrophies. Adrenoleukodystrophy progressively damages the myelin, a complex fatty neural tissue that insulates many nerves of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Without myelin, nerves are unable to conduct an impulse, leading to increasing disability as myelin destruction increases and intensifies.
Androgen insensitivity syndrome - set of disorders of sexual differentiation caused by mutations of the gene encoding the androgen receptor.[1] The nature of the resulting problem varies according to the structure and sensitivity of the abnormal receptor. Most forms of AIS involve variable degrees of undervirilization and/or infertility in XY persons of either gender. A person with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS) has a female external appearance despite a 46XY karyotype and undescended testes, a condition termed "testicular feminization" in the past.
Congenital Hypothyroidism – condition of thyroid hormone deficiency present at birth. Approximately 1 in 4000 newborn infants has a severe deficiency of thyroid function, while even more have mild or partial degrees. If untreated for several months after birth, severe congenital hypothyroidism can lead to growth failure and permanent mental retardation. Treatment consists of a daily dose of thyroid hormone (thyroxine) by mouth. Because the treatment is simple, effective, and inexpensive, nearly all of the developed world practices newborn screening to detect and treat congenital hypothyroidism in the first weeks of life.
Cryptorchidism - absence of one or both testes from the scrotum. This usually represents failure of the testes to move, or "descend," during fetal development from an abdominal position, through the inguinal canal, into the ipsilateral scrotum. About 3% of full-term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at least one undescended testis, making cryptorchidism the most common birth defect of male genitalia. However, most testes descend by the first year of life (the majority within three months), making the true incidence of cryptorchidism around 1% overall.
Cushing Syndrome – endocrine disorder caused by high levels of cortisol in the blood from a variety of causes, including a pituitary adenoma (known as Cushing's disease), adrenal hyperplasia or neoplasia, ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) production (e.g., from a small cell lung cancer), and iatrogenic (steroid use). Normally, cortisol is released from the adrenal gland in response to ACTH being released from the pituitary gland. Both Cushing's syndrome and Cushing's disease are characterized by elevated levels of cortisol in the blood, but the cause of elevated cortisol differs between the two disorders. Cushing's disease specifically refers to a tumour in the pituitary gland that stimulates excessive release of cortisol from the adrenal gland by releasing large amounts of ACTH. In Cushing's syndrome, the pituitary gland does not respond as it should with negative feedback to high levels of cortisol, and continues to produce ACTH.
Diabetes Insipidus – condition characterized by excretion of large amounts of severely diluted urine, which cannot be reduced when fluid intake is reduced. It denotes inability of the kidney to concentrate urine. DI is caused by a deficiency of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin, due to the destruction of the back or "posterior" part of the pituitary gland where vasopressin is normally released from, or by an insensitivity of the kidneys to that hormone. It can also be induced iatrogenically by various drugs.
Diabetes Mellitus –referred to simply as diabetes, is a syndrome of disordered metabolism, usually due to a combination of hereditary and environmental causes, resulting in abnormally high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia). Blood glucose levels are controlled by a complex interaction of multiple chemicals and hormones in the body, including the hormone insulin made in the beta cells of the pancreas. Diabetes mellitus refers to the group of diseases that lead to high blood glucose levels due to defects in either insulin secretion or insulin action.
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 – form of diabetes mellitus. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease that results in destruction of insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas. Thus far, such destruction has been permanent, but there is informed speculation that reversing the immune system malfunction may allow recovery of beta cell function. Lack of insulin causes an increase of fasting blood glucose (around 70-120 mg/dL in the healthy people) that begins to appear in the urine above the renal threshold (about 190-200mg/dl in most people), thus connecting to the symptom by which the disease was identified in antiquity, sweet urine. Glycosuria or glucose in the urine causes the patients to urinate more frequently, and drink more than normal (polydipsia). Classically, these were the characteristic symptoms which prompted discovery of the disease.
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 – metabolic disorder that is primarily characterized by insulin resistance, relative insulin deficiency, and hyperglycemia. It is often managed by increasing exercise and dietary modification, although medications and insulin are often needed, especially as the disease progresses. It is rapidly increasing in the developed world and there is some evidence that this pattern will be followed in much of the rest of the world in coming years. CDC has characterized the increase as an epidemic. In addition, whereas this disease used to be also seen primarily in adults over age 40, in contrast to type 1 diabetes, it is now increasingly seen in children and adolescents, an increase thought to be linked to rising rates of obesity in this age group, although it remains a minority of cases.
Diabetes, Gestational – condition in which women without previously diagnosed diabetes exhibit high blood glucose levels during pregnancy.
Diabetic Ketoacidosis – life-threatening complication in patients with diabetes mellitus. Near complete deficiency of insulin and elevated levels of certain stress hormones increase the chance of a DKA episode. DKA is more common among Type I diabetics, but may also occur in Type II diabetics, particularly during periods of increased physiologic stress, such as during an infection. Patients with new, undiagnosed Type I diabetes frequently present to hospitals with DKA. DKA can also occur in a known diabetic who fails to take prescribed insulin, or in diabetics who fall sick due to illnesses such as pneumonia or a kidney infection. DKA was a major cause of death in Type I diabetics before insulin injections were available; untreated DKA has a high mortality rate.
Diabetic Neuropathies – neuropathic disorders that are associated with diabetes mellitus. These conditions are thought to result from diabetic microvascular injury involving small blood vessels that supply nerves (vasa nervorum). Relatively common conditions which may be associated with diabetic neuropathy include third nerve palsy; mononeuropathy; mononeuropathy multiplex; diabetic amyotrophy; a painful polyneuropathy; autonomic neuropathy; and thoracoabdominal neuropathy.
Diabetic Retinopathy – retinopathy (damage to the retina) caused by complications of diabetes mellitus, which can eventually lead to blindness. It is an ocular manifestation of systemic disease which affects up to 80% of all patients who have had diabetes for 10 years or more[1]. Despite these intimidating statistics, research indicates that at least 90% of these new cases could be reduced if there was proper and vigilant treatment and monitoring of the eyes
DiGeorge Syndrome – disorder caused by the deletion of a small piece of chromosome 22. The deletion occurs near the middle of the chromosome at a location designated q11.2 i.e., on the long arm of one of the pair of chromosomes 22. It has a prevalence estimated at 1:4000.
Dwarfism – medical condition in humans characterized by extreme small size. The most widely accepted definition in medical biology for a dwarf is a person with an adult height of less than 4 feet 10 inches (147cm). In older popular and medical usage, any type of marked human smallness could also be termed dwarfism.
Empty Sella Syndrome – disorder that involves the sella turcica, a bony structure at the base of the brain that surrounds and protects the pituitary gland. ESS is a condition that is often discovered during tests for pituitary disorders, when radiological imaging of the pituitary gland reveals a sella turcica that appears to be empty.
Gigantism – condition characterized by excessive growth and height significantly above average.
Graves Disease – thyroid disorder characterized by goiter, exophthalmos, "orange-peel" skin, and hyperthyroidism. It is caused by an antibody-mediated auto-immune reaction, but the trigger for this reaction is still unknown. It is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism in the world, and the most common cause of general thyroid enlargement in developed countries.
Hermaphroditism – having both male and female reproductive organs. In many species, hermaphroditism is a common part of the life-cycle, enabling a form of sexual reproduction in which partners are not separated into distinct male and female types of individual. Hermaphroditism most commonly occurs in invertebrates, although it is also found in some fish, and to a lesser degree in other vertebrates.
Hyperaldosteronism – medical condition where too much aldosterone is produced by the adrenal glands, which can lead to lowered levels of potassium in the blood.
Hyperpituitarism – result of excess secretion of adenohypophyseal trophic hormones most commonly by a functional pituitary adenoma. Other causes are hyperplasias and carcinomas of the adenohypophysis, secretion by non-pituitary tumours and certain hypothalamic disorders.
Hyperprolactinemia – presence of abnormally-high levels of prolactin in the blood. Normal levels are less than 580 mIU/L for women, and less than 450 mIU/L for men.
Prolactin is a peptide hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland primarily associated with lactation and plays important breast development during pregnancy. Hyperprolactinaemia may cause production and spontaneous flow of breast milk and disruptions in the normal menstrual period in women and hypogonadism, infertility and erectile dysfunction in men.
Hyperthyroidism – term for overactive tissue within the thyroid gland, resulting in overproduction and thus an excess of circulating free thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), or both. The term is also often used more loosely to describe any syndrome of excess thyroid hormone (more properly termed hyperthyroxinemia), regardless of the source. Thyrotoxicosis is the term for symptomatic hyperthyroxinemia. Thyroid hormone is important at a cellular level, affecting nearly every type of tissue in the body. It functions as a stimulus to metabolism, and is critical to normal function of the cell. In excess it overstimulates, causing "speeding up" of various body systems, and thus symptoms: Fast heart beat results in palpitations, a fast nervous system in tremor and anxiety symptoms, a fast digestive system in weight loss and diarrhea. Lack of functioning thyroid tissue results in a symptomatic lack of thyroid hormone, termed hypothyroidism.
Hypogonadism – medical term for a defect of the reproductive system that results in lack of function of the gonads (ovaries or testes). The gonads have two functions: to produce hormones (testosterone, estradiol, antimullerian hormone, progesterone, inhibin B), activin and to produce gametes (eggs or sperm). Deficiency of sex hormones can result in defective primary or secondary sexual development, or withdrawal effects (e.g., premature menopause) in adults. Defective egg or sperm development results in infertility.
Hypopituitarism – decreased (hypo) secretion of one or more of the eight hormones normally produced by the pituitary gland at the base of the brain.[1][2] If there is decreased secretion of most pituitary hormones, the term panhypopituitarism (pan meaning "all") is used.
Hypothyroidism – disease state in humans and animals caused by insufficient production of thyroid hormone by the thyroid gland. Cretinism is a form of hypothyroidism found in infants.
Insulinoma – tumour of the pancreas derived from the beta cells which while retaining the ability to synthesize and secrete insulin is autonomous of the normal feedback mechanisms. Patients present with symptomatic hypoglycemia which is ameliorated by feeding. The diagnosis of an insulinoma is usually made biochemically with low blood sugar, elevated insulin, pro-insulin and C-peptide levels and confirmed by medical imaging or angiography. The definitive treatment is surgery.
Kallmann Syndrome – form of tertiary hypogonadism reflecting the fact the primary cause of the defect in sex hormone production lies within the pituitary and hypothalamus rather than a physical defect of the testes or ovaries themselves.
Klinefelter Syndrome - condition caused by a chromosome aneuploidy. Affected individuals have at least two X chromosomes and at least one Y chromosome
Nelson Syndrome – rapid enlargement of a pituitary adenoma that occurs after the removal of both adrenal glands.
Ovarian Cysts – collection of fluid, surrounded by a very thin wall, within an ovary. Any ovarian follicle that is larger than about two centimeters is termed an ovarian cyst. An ovarian cyst can be as small as a pea, or larger than a cantaloupe.
Ovarian Cancer – is a cancerous growth arising from an ovary. The cancer most commonly forms in the lining of the ovary (resulting in epithelial ovarian cancer)[1] or in the egg cells (resulting in a germ cell tumor). Ovarian cancer is the fifth leading cause of death from cancer in women and the leading cause of death from gynecological cancer. A woman has a lifetime risk of ovarian cancer of around 1.5%, which makes it the second most common gynecologic malignancy (the first being breast cancer).
Pancreatic Neoplasms – malignant tumor of the pancreas. Each year about 37,680 individuals in the United States are diagnosed with this condition, and 34,290 die from the disease. In Europe more than 60,000 are diagnosed each year. Depending on the extent of the tumor at the time of diagnosis, the prognosis is generally regarded as poor, with less than 5 percent of those diagnosed still alive five years after diagnosis, and complete remission still extremely rare. About 95 percent[of pancreatic tumors are adenocarcinomas (M8140/3). The remaining 5 percent include other tumors of the exocrine pancreas (e.g., serous cystadenomas), acinar cell cancers, and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (such as insulinomas, M8150/1, M8150/3). These tumors have a completely different diagnostic and therapeutic profile, and generally a more favorable prognosis.
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) - endocrine disorder that affects approximately 5% of all women. It occurs amongst all races and nationalities, is the most common hormonal disorder among women of reproductive age, and is a leading cause of infertility.
Puberty, Delayed – described as delayed when a boy or girl has passed the usual age of onset of puberty with no physical or hormonal signs that it is beginning. Puberty may be delayed for several years and still occur normally, in which case it is considered constitutional delay, a variation of healthy physical development. Delay of puberty may also occur due to undernutrition, many forms of systemic disease, or to defects of the reproductive system (hypogonadism) or the body's responsiveness to sex hormones.
Puberty, Precocious – is an unusually early onset of puberty, the process of sexual maturation triggered by the brain or exogenous chemicals, which usually begins in late childhood and results in reproductive maturity and completion of growth. Early puberty may be a variation of normal development, or may be a result of a disease or abnormal hormone exposure.
Renal Osteodystrophy – bone pathology, characterized by defective mineralization, that results from kidney disease. Renal osteodystrophy comes in two different forms, high bone turnover and low bone turnover.
Testicular Neoplasms – cancer that develops in the testicles, a part of the male reproductive system
Thyroid Neoplasms – refers to any of four kinds of malignant tumors of the thyroid gland: papillary, follicular, medullary or anaplastic. Papillary and follicular tumors are the most common. They grow slowly and may recur, but are generally not fatal in patients under 45 years of age. Medullary tumors have a good prognosis if restricted to the thyroid gland and a poorer prognosis if metastasis occurs. Anaplastic tumors are fast-growing and respond poorly to therapy.
Thyroid Nodule – lumps which commonly arise within an otherwise normal thyroid gland
Thyroiditis – inflammation of the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is located on the front of the neck below the laryngeal prominence, and makes hormones that control metabolism. There are many different types of thyroiditis, with the most common being Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Other forms of the disease are postpartum thyroiditis, subacute thyroiditis, silent thyroiditis, drug-induced thyroiditis, radiation-induced thyroiditis, and acute thyroiditis (American Thyroid Association, 2008). Each different type of this disease has its own causes, clinical features, diagnoses, durations, resolutions, conditions and risks.
Turner syndrome or Ullrich-Turner syndrome - encompasses several conditions, of which monosomy X is the most common. It is a chromosomal disorder affecting females in which all or part of one of the X chromosomes is absent. Occurring in 1 out of every 2500 girls, the syndrome manifests itself in a number of ways. There are characteristic physical abnormalities, such as short stature, lymphoedema, broad chest, low hairline, low-set ears, and webbed neck. Girls with TS typically experience gonadal dysfunction with subsequent amenorrhea and infertility. Concurrent health concerns are also frequently present, including congenital heart disease, hypothyroidism, ophthalmological problems, and otological concerns [1]. Finally, a specific pattern of cognitive deficits is often observed, with particular difficulties in visuospatial, mathematic, and memory areas
Wolfram Syndrome or DIDMOAD (Diabetes Insipidus, Diabetes Mellitus, Optic Atrophy, and Deafness) - rare genetic disorder, causing diabetes mellitus, optic atrophy, and deafness as well as various other possible disorders.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Gout is a disorder in which humans start to accumulate more than the usual amount of uric acid (caused by either the body manufacturing excess uric acid or the kidneys not excreting enough of it) and since it’s not water-soluble, it gets stored in the body, frequently in toe joints, causing pain and deformation of the joints involved as well as the formation of kidney stones. Traditionally, people who had gout were put on diets low in purines to try to help alleviate the condition. Typically, gout is treated with colchicine, a deadly poison Caffeine and its relatives, theobromine (in cocoa), and theophylline (in tea) are classified as xanthines (a subgroup within the purines), thus it would make sense that people with gout should be counseled to avoid coffee, tea, and chocolate.
Nephritis is an inflammation of the glomeruli, due to a number of possible causes, including things like strep throat. Symptoms include bloody urine, scant urine output, and edema (swelling/puffliness). Another, more severe form, is due to an autoimmune attack on the glomeruli. Other types of nephritis affect the tubules.
Nephrosis also affects the glomeruli, and is characterized by excretion of abnormally large amounts of protein (often causing “foamy” urine) and generalized edema (water retension/swelling) throughout the whole body, especially noted as “puffy” eyelids. Because these people’s kidneys often do not handle sodium properly, a low-salt diet is usually prescribed. My younger brother developed nephrosis at age 4, and to control it, had to stay on a no-added-salt diet and take prednisone on a regular basis from then until age 16, at which point, his body finally responded positively to being weaned off the drug.
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are caused by Gram negative bacteria such as E. coli. If there is an obstruction of the urethra, catheterization may be needed, but as a general rule, catheterization in cases of UTI is contraindicated because it can actually introduce pathogens and make the infection worse. Women tend to acquire more urethral and bladder infections than men, perhaps because the opening of the urethra is closer to the anus. The way a woman cleans the area after relieving herself can influence her chances of contracting a UTI and/or vaginal infection. When parents are toilet-training toddlers, the common mistake is to wipe young girls from back to front. The toddlers get used to this feeling, and when they start to wipe themselves, they also go from back to front. This technique wipes bacteria from the anal area towards or into the ends of the vagina and urethra. Rather, young girls should be trained to wipe from front to back, and women who were not trained this way should make a conscious effort to change their habits.
There are a variety of types of kidney stones depending on what conditions caused their formation. According to the Merck Manual, in the United States, about 80% are calcium oxalate (and/or other calcium-based stones), 5% are uric acid, 2% are cystine, and the other 13% due to magnesium ammonium phosphate or other causes. Stones may be microscopic to large “staghorn” stones that fill the whole renal pelvis. Often, as the stone is passed down the ureter, the person experiences much pain, and the affected kidney may even temporarily become nonfunctional. Stones may be broken up by ultrasound so they can be passed more easily, but large stones may have to be surgically removed. If possible, the underlying cause of the stone(s) should be identified and alleviated. For example, calcium stones might be caused by anything from a parathyroid gland problem to too much vitamin D to some forms of cancer to a genetic predisposition.
Diabetes mellitus is often referred to simply as diabetes, is a syndrome of disordered metabolism, usually due to a combination of hereditary and environmental causes, resulting in abnormally high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia). Blood glucose levels are controlled by the hormone insulin made in the beta cells of the pancreas. Diabetes develops due to a diminished production of insulin (in type 1) or resistance to its effects (in type 2 and gestational). Both lead to hyperglycemia, which largely causes the acute signs of diabetes: excessive urine production, resulting compensatory thirst and increased fluid intake, blurred vision, unexplained weight loss, lethargy, and changes in energy metabolism. Monogenic forms, e.g. MODY, constitute 1-5 % of all cases. All forms of diabetes have been treatable since insulin became medically available in 1921, but there is no cure. The injections by a syringe or insulin pump deliver insulin, which is a basic treatment of type 1 diabetes. Type 2 is managed with a combination of dietary treatment, tablets and insulin supplementation.
Hypertension, also referred to as high blood pressure, HTN or HPN, is a medical condition in which the blood pressure is chronically elevated. In current usage, the word "hypertension" without a qualifier normally refers to arterial hypertension. Hypertension can be classified either essential (primary) or secondary. Essential hypertension indicates that no specific medical cause can be found to explain a patient's condition. Secondary hypertension indicates that the high blood pressure is a result of (i.e., secondary to) another condition, such as kidney disease or tumours (pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma). Persistent hypertension is one of the risk factors for strokes, heart attacks, heart failure and arterial aneurysm, and is a leading cause of chronic renal failure. Even moderate elevation of arterial blood pressure leads to shortened life expectancy. At severely high pressures, defined as mean arterial pressures 50% or more above average, a person can expect to live no more than a few years unless appropriately treated. In individuals older than 50 years, hypertension is considered to be present when a person's systolic blood pressure is consistently 140 mm Hg or greater.
Hepatitis implies injury to the liver characterized by the presence of inflammatory cells in the tissue of the organ. The name is from ancient Greek hepar (ηπαρ) or hepato- (ηπατο-), meaning liver, and suffix -itis, meaning "inflammation" (c. 1727). The condition can be self-limiting, healing on its own, or can progress to scarring of the liver. Hepatitis is acute when it lasts less than six months and chronic when it persists longer. A group of viruses known as the hepatitis viruses cause most cases of liver damage worldwide. Hepatitis can also be due to toxins (notably alcohol), other infections or from autoimmune process. It may run a subclinical course when the affected person may not feel ill. The patient becomes unwell and symptomatic when the disease impairs liver functions that include, among other things, removal of harmful substances, regulation of blood composition, and production of bile to help digestion.
NERVOUS SYSTEM- DISEASES
Alzheimer's Disease - progressive, neurodegenerative disease that occurs in the brain
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis - terminal neurological disorder characterized by progressive degeneration of nerve cells in the spinal cord and brain. Often referred to as "Lou Gehrig's disease", it is one of the most devastating of the disorders that affects the function of nerves and muscles.
Bell's Palsy - unexplained episode of facial muscle weakness or paralysis that begins suddenly and worsens over three to five days. This condition results from damage to the 7th (facial) cranial nerve, and may be accompanied by pain or discomfort on one side of the face and head.
Brain Cancers - Tumors that occur in the brain may be either benign (non-cancerous), or malignant (cancerous).
Brain Tumors - abnormal growth of tissue in the brain. The tumor can either originate in the brain itself, or come from another part of the body and travel to the brain (metastasize). Brain tumors may be classified as either benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous) depending on their behavior.
Epilepsy - A person may experience one or numerous seizures.
Guillain-Barre Syndrome - neurological disorder in which the body's immune system attacks part of the peripheral nervous system. It is a devastating disorder because of its sudden and unexpected onset. The disorder can develop over the course of hours or days, or it may take up to three to four weeks.
Meningitis - inflammation of the meninges, the membranes that surround the brain.
Multiple Sclerosis - chronic disease of the central nervous system. It is an unpredictable condition that can be relatively benign, disabling, or devastating. Some individuals with MS may be mildly affected while others may lose their ability to write, speak, or walk -- when communication between the brain and other parts of the body becomes disrupted.
Parkinson’s Disease - most common form of parkinsonism, a group of motor system disorders. It is a slowly progressing, degenerative disease.
Stroke - also called a "brain attack," happens when brain cells die because of inadequate blood flow. A stroke is considered to be a cardiovascular disease and a neurological disorder.
NERVOUS SYSTEM – DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
Computerized Tomography (CT ) or computer assisted tomography (CAT) scans -- forms of radiology or imaging that use computers to construct two-dimensional pictures of selected parts of the body. Dye may be injected into a vein to obtain a better picture.
Electroencephalogram (EEG) -- a procedure that records the brain's continuous electrical activity by means of electrodes attached to the scalp.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) -- an advanced method of imaging the brain using a very strong magnet, without radiation.
Electromyogram (EMG) -- a procedure that measures and records electrical activity from the muscles and nerves with mild electrical shocks to stimulate the nerves.
Arteriogram (angiogram) -- a procedure that provides a scan of arteries going to and through the brain.
Cerebral Spinal Fluid Analysis (spinal tap) -- a procedure used to make an evaluation or diagnosis by examining the fluid withdrawn from the spinal column.
Evoked Potentials -- procedures that record the brain's electrical response to visual, auditory, and sensory stimuli.
Myelogram -- a procedure that uses dye injected into the spinal canal to make the structure clearly visible on x-rays.
Neurosonography -- a procedure that uses ultra high frequency sound waves that enable the physician to analyze blood flow in cases of possible stroke.
DIGESTIVE SYTEM- DISEASES
Colorectal cancer - malignant cells found in the colon or rectum. The colon and the rectum are part of the large intestine, which is part of the digestive system. Because colon cancer and rectal cancers have many features in common, they are sometimes referred to together as colorectal cancer.
Stomach cancer, also known as gastric cancer - cancer that starts in any part of the stomach. The stomach is just one of many organs located in the abdomen, the area of the body between the chest and the pelvis.
Diarrhea - defined either as watery stool, or increased frequency, or both, when compared to a normal amount. It is a common problem that may last a few days and disappear on its own.
Diverticular disease - inflammation or infection in the pouches, known as diverticula, which are located in the colon.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) - a digestive disorder that is caused by gastric acid flowing from the stomach into the esophagus.
Hernia - a protrusion of part of an organ through the wall of the cavity that contains it. A hiatal hernia occurs when the upper part of the stomach pushes up into the chest through a small opening in the diaphragm, the muscle that separates the stomach from the chest.
Ulcerative colitis - inflammatory bowel disease in which the inner lining of the large intestine (colon or bowel) and rectum become inflamed. Inflammation usually begins in the rectum and lower (sigmoid) intestine and spreads upward to the entire colon. Ulcerative colitis rarely affects the small intestine except for the lower section, the ileum.
Crohn's disease - inflammatory bowel disease that is a chronic condition that may recur at various times over a lifetime. It usually involves the small intestine, most often the lower part called the ileum.
Lactose intolerance - condition caused by a lack of an enzyme called lactase, which, in turn, causes the body to be unable to digest lactose, a sugar found in milk products.
Gastric Ulcer- ulcer is in the stomach
Duodenal Ulcer- ulcer is in the duodenum
